The internet is at the foundation of all digital interactions including online businesses, digital commerce, and other social experiences on the web. The present state of the internet is based on the client-server architecture, facilitated by the Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP), which is an application protocol that runs on top of the TCP/IP suite and is used to communicate between client browsers and centralized servers. However, the increased adoption rate and exponential growth of the internet have amplified concerns regarding the sustainability, scalability, and latency of the HTTP and present-day web architecture. For instance, the centralization of servers increases inefficiencies in content delivery, since numerous files are downloaded from a central point. This consequently increases the prevalence of DDoS attacks, ISP censorship and government snooping. Other issues border around expensive bandwidth cost, file duplication leading to bloated storage, fragile history of information stored on the internet and short lifespans of webpages.

Communities are inherently valuable in all spheres of human endeavors as it provides an avenue for groups of people to collectively collaborate and deliver different forms of value. Many of the Web 2.0 applications such as Facebook and Reddit have experienced significant growth and traction in the 21st century because of the capacity to enable groups of like-minded individuals to connect, share resources and form valuable communities. However, there has been associated concerns of centralism, centralization, and censorship. Therefore, this emanated the need for self-governing, decentralized community structures, tools and governance systems that could enable members collectively work on a common goal with less bureaucracies and centralized power structures. This research examines the key DAO related projects and tools that enables projects to seamlessly form communities and DAO structures.

The increased adoption of digital assets and cryptocurrencies has attracted various retail and institutional interest globally. This has consequently informed the need for regulatory scrutiny, although the regulatory approaches to cryptocurrencies significantly differ across various jurisdictions. On one extreme, China, which previously had the largest concentration of Bitcoin miners initiated a mining crackdown in 2021, while El-Salvador on the other end, passed a law declaring Bitcoin legal tender. In recent times, the Central African Republic has become the first African country and the second globally to approve Bitcoin as a legal tender. The Markets in Crypto-Asset (MICA) proposed draft regulation is part of the European Union (EU) digital finance strategy which was introduced in 2020, and covers a wide range of rules for stable-coin issuers, cryptocurrency exchanges and service providers. Generally, the MICA framework focuses on four cardinal objectives namely:

The proliferation of Distributed Ledger Technologies (DLT) has led to the introduction of revolutionary changes to the global financial landscape, offering a platform for a more democratic financial system by eliminating traditional barriers to entry, and lowering transaction costs, while providing transparent, secure, permissionless and accessible financial services. However, the high volatility associated with most digital assets and cryptocurrencies has limited their appeal as reliable means of exchange, trade settlements, remittances or other forms of payments (Schaubhut, 2023). In response to this issue, Stablecoins are devised as a distinct type of cryptocurrency designed to maintain a stable value similar to fiat currencies like the US dollar, or a commodity, like gold (Afeef, 2024). This stability is achieved through various mechanisms, including collateralisation, seigniorage, or algorithmic measures to minimize volatility (Au, et al., 2024).

The explosive growth and rapid advancements in Artificial Intelligence (AI) technologies signals a long-term transformative trend which has attracted massive investments due to the impact of AI systems in enhancing efficiency, creating new revenue streams, increasing productivity, and revolutionising every sector within the global economy. The evolution of AI has progressed from algorithms capable of generating content (Generative AI) to more advanced systems that can autonomously plan and execute tasks (AI Agents). Initially, AI focused on creating outputs like text and images, but presently, AI agents are emerging and equipped with abilities to perceive their environment, independently make decisions, and take actions to effectively achieve goals, thus moving towards more sovereign and complex problem-solving. The progression from the orthodox Generative-based AI to Agentic AI represents a paradigm shift from static rule-based systems that are human-dependent to adaptive, autonomous, and goal-driven entities capable of interacting with dynamic environments.